The total of the yaqui territory comprises three clearly differentiated zones: A highland zone ( the Bacatete's Sierra ); A fishing zone ( Guásimas and Puerto Lobos ) and farmlands ( the Yaqui's Valley ).
As of the present moment, the population reaches the 32.000 inhabitants approximately according to certain sources, having been severely reduced by the wars that they fought for their survival during over 50 years.

In addition to the inhabitants of these towns, there exist other yaqui's groups that settled down at the State's different cities, at the return of their exile at Yucatán's peninsula during Government of Don Porfirio Díaz, or else for having been required for occasional concrete works. When not returning to their towns, they create their own colonies inside the important cities. At Hermosillo's City, they are known like neighborhoods yaqui La Matanza's, El Coloso's and Sarmiento's colonies, places where their inhabitants make efforts to preserve traditions and the yaqui nation's cultural roots.

HISTORY

Pre-Hispanic period:

• Ethnic and historic studies affirm that the Cahitas nucleuses were a total of 23; originating of the Gila river and that by the year 1300 d.C. appear in Sonora's territory.

Colonial period:

• 1607: First contact with Occident, when captain Diego Martínez de Hurdaide entered the yaqui territory chasing some mayo Indians. There are several combats to submit the yaqui, those who manage to corner the Spanish. But thanks to one scheme of the Spanish captain's they flee and ever since, recognizing their value, they are dubbed Yori, that is lions, valiants.
• 1610: The yaqui offer the peace to the yori and request Jesuit missionaries, since they witnessed the benefit that this had given his mayo neighbors.
• 1617: Jesuits Fray Andrés Pérez de Rivas and Fray Tomás Basilio come in, initiating a long peacetime. To be able to teach them more easily these missionaries congregate themselves at eight towns: Cócorit ( Chiltepines ), Bácum ( lagoons ), Vícam ( arrowheads ), Pótam ( moles ), Tórim ( rats ), Huíribis ( a kind of bird ), Ráhum ( pools ) and Belem ( Belén ).
  The missionaries introduced, along with cattle raising, European cultivations like wheat, the vine and the vegetables and improved their plantings with the technological advances that they brought. In the missions the work was regulated: Three days in the subjects of the mission, other three at his own communal lands and the seventh one was dedicated to the Christian cult.

Evangelization proved to be so effective that rites nowadays keep on such like Jesuits missionaries taught them in the XVIIth century, in a syncretism of ancestral beliefs and Christian beliefs, maintaining the temastián's institution or indigenous catechist and the rest of the religious authorities.

• 1740: Uprising of the tribe along with groups mayo, pima and ópata, when white men attempt to take possession of their fertile lands and to use them as cheap labour.
• 1767: The Jesuits' expulsion causes a strong lack of control and nonconformity to them and peacetime is  broken.  The Franciscans Missionaries that enter could not control them.

Independent period:

• 1810: The yaqui do not take part in the War Of Independence since they always considered themselves an independent nation.
• 1825: The yaqui rebellions with continuous crashes between yori and yaqui reinitiate. There exist continuous raisings, assaults, executions, promises, divisions that decrease the ethnos, forcing them to soar several times to the Bacatete's sierra and creating a climate of unrest at all of the zone. The uprisings belonging to Cajeme in 1870 and the guerillas of Tetabiate highlight.
• 1897: Ortiz's peace, that is broken very soon and the hostilities come back.

The Yaqui's War happens in the latter third part of the XIXth century like an answer to the open convocation to colonize the lands of the Yaqui's and Mayo's valleys. The yaqui raise in defense of their land and their autonomy. The battle in the cannon of the Mazocoba ( 1900 ), the one in which the federal army inflicted a strong defeat to the yaqui was decisive, hundred of them die and the army takes 300 women and children as prisoners. From this time on, the deportation to Yucatán begins, and keeps at a constant way until the end of the first decade of the XXth century, arriving the majority in 1908.

Deportation to Yucatán: Genocide campaign during the Porfirian period deporting thousands of yaqui, inclusively entire families, in order to go to work at the henequen haciendas of Yucatán, a very heavy work that caused a high mortality. Yaquis were famous for their force and because they cut more fleshy leaves than the other ones ( there were also Chineses, koreans, tlaxcaltecs, etc at these haciendas ). The women worked on the communal cuisine. Of the 6500 that is  calculated were deported to Yucatán, some 3500 came back, from which the majority died and a few settled down there, marring a Mayan woman or man ( in INEGI's poll of 1990 in Yucatán only got registered two speakers of yaqui language ). Starting from 1911 it begins, in a gradual way, their return to Sonora. The deportation did not achieve her goal of uprooting, it was the other way around, it reinforced them more like a group and like own culture.

• With the deportation there were left in Sonora some 3000 yaqui, protected by landowners with influence; the majority were in Yucatán and other ones emigrated toward Arizona ( United States ). At their return, many become established in Pótam and other ones look for work at Hermosillo's City where they settle in at El Coloso's, El Mariachi's and La Matanza's neighborhoods, working at numerous public works like the penitentiary, railroad, etc. even though their presence at this city begins from mid the XIXth century.
• 1910: The ethnos had an important participation in the conflict of the Mexican Revolution, since it had been promised to them that with their collaboration, at the end of the war they would receive back their territories. When authorities did not carry out the agreement, new uprisings took place still in 1929.
• 1937 to 1939: Agreements, under the general Lázaro Cárdenas's presidency, where they concede and they ratify the dominion of their lands to the ethnos, incorporating it to the national system of common lands and recognizing the yaqui traditional authorities's legitimacy. The left bank of the Yaqui river ends up in control of the yori and the right bank in control of the yaqui.

 

Currently, the yaqui fight continues for the defense of their lands and their autonomy, being ruled by their own traditional authorities, inside the Mexican legality's frame.

"JIAK NOKPO" LANGUAGE

It belongs to the cahíta linguistic system, of the yutoazteca family.

They call themselves YOEME, that is "people", in front of the white men or YORI.

Cahita is a term that names a linguistic or racial group. At the moment there survive in Sonora two of the twenty three Cahitas groups: The Yaqui and the Mayo.

ECONOMY, HOUSING, HEALTH, EDUCATION

The tenancy of the land has three forms: The common land or "ejido", the community property and the small property.
They possess cattle raising and cultivations ( wheat, safflower, soja bean, alfalfa, hortaliza and forage ), also fishing in Puerto Lobos and craft work.
The traditional housing is a structure of reed and adobe, with earthen floor and roof of reed or palm. At present it is made of cement material and lamina and have electricity, potable water, mail, telegraph, telephone and internet.
In education, they have bilingual elementary schools, secondary education and technological pre-university studies.

The elementary school textbooks are in yaqui language with examples of the social context of the group, in order that children do not distort the awareness of moral values and traditions of their group. Also the YAQUI TRIBE'S EDUCATIONAL PROJECT, within the leadership of supervisory zones of indigenous education of the "Secretaría de Educación y Cultura" is developing.
They count with many students of the ethnos at Sonora's University accomplishing studies of bachelor's degree in Linguistics, Laws and other careers.
Lutisuc Asociación Cultural I.A.P. participate with the yaqui communities settled at Hermosillo's city in diverse actions for the preservation of their culture; Among them, it has accomplished various workshops and supportive courses to the language, music, craftsmanship and traditional clothing.

PROJECTS

GOVERNMENT yaqui oath

By the missionaries' arrival the yaqui lived at 11 towns and a lot of settlements along the river. The missionary task began bringing the yaqui together at the eight traditional towns.
In addition to religion, the missionaries taught them new agricultural techniques and the alphabetization, the social organization governed by civil, military and religious authorities, that are the ones that currently are known as traditional authorities

Civil and judicial authority: Each town has a governor or major Cobanao, helped by other four governors and Los Pueblos, a sort of council board of old men or Senate, formed by the Pueblo Mayor and many others according to the town inhabitants' number.
The ethnos's supreme Government is  formed by the 40 governors and the ancient  towns gathered.
Military authority: Being the one with more importance the second lieutenant or standard-bearer, next the tambulero, after them the captain yoowe or first captain, second captain, lieutenants, sergeants and cabos.
Religious authority: rules during the time of Cuaresma, the one in which the supreme and total authority is deposited in the Pharisees or chapayecas, under whose orders act out the military and religious authorities, while civilians suspend their functions temporarily.

RELIGION

The principal festivity is Lent, that determines a dual division of the ritual calendar that corresponds with the seasonal division between the dry season of winter and the one belonging to rains of summer. Christ is the central figure in the Lenten rites, Maria is the central in the not Lenten ones.
In Lent, the Pharisees' group, known as La Costumbre, play the more important role. His members represent all characters that intervened in Christ's passion: Pharisees or Chapayecas, Pilato, Roman soldiers, the very Jesus Christ ( only upon the Holy Week ), the ones to which are added a tambulero (Christ's nails in the cross, are remembered by his sound), a flautist ( his sound is the Mother of God's lament ) and a surveillance body with military degrees to protect and to watch the order.
Next to them, the three Maries ( María Magdalena, Jesús's mother and Cleofás's wife ) have a very secondary role.

All La Costumbre's members are integrants for bequest or promise made for three consecutive years ( although some have lifelong bequest ). One of the sacrifices involves to be wearing a mask made of leather and not to talk during all the acts of Lent, not to take in meat, not to drink alcohol, not to have sexual affairs, not to get on anything of automotive type, to sleep at improvised huts during the 40 days of Lent in the case of a military Guard member, etc.
This austerity imposed in the dry season of winter, and the predominance of what's masculine, establish a parallel between this ceremonial and the ones belonging to other yuto-Aztec groups, that accomplish similar rites dedicated to the sun.
Sun, moon and afternoon's star were for the yuto-Aztecs the sacred triad, that once joined to the rest of the celestial bodies, they influence the life in Earth directly and establish contact with the world from the beyond. Among the yaqui, these beliefs keep on latent under the Catholic lead.
The shadowy Lenten period is  closed down on Saturday of Glory, not on Sunday, with the Lord's Resurrection. It starts up in the morning taking out a straw big doll for a ride mounted on a donkey: The Judas, who is the depository of all the guilts of Passion and object of mockeries and claims. After the walk, perhaps gathering evil from the town in itself, it is dismounted and hold standing to a stick in front of the temple. The Pharisees' masks surround it to form with him a bonfire that will burn and will consume all the evil.
After the Judas's burning, a new epoch full of life, flowers, joy, abundance is initiated, and it comprises the rest of the year.
This second period establishes María's reign ( the symbol of rain, of abundance, of fertility...) Symbolized in the petals of flowers that are thrown up and spread for all the ground in the liturgy of the Easter Saturday.
From this time on, one can go back to daily activities, while the butchers or the Virgin's dancers resume their dances.
Other celebrations are: The Holy Cross, May 3, where the Lent finishes; the Cabos of year or vigils with traditional dances when deceaseds have a year( during 4 years ), Guadalupe's Virgin's celebration in Loma of Guamuchil; the Holy Trinity in Pótam; Corpus Christi in Ráhum; John the Baptist in Vícam; Virgin of the Road in Lomas de Bácum; San Francisco Javier the October 4 in Magdalena of Kino, among other ones.

BELIEFS

The oral tradition tells about the existence of the Surem as their ancestors, describing them like wise people with big beards, than ate roots and woodland fruits; and that lived a lot of years.
"One day they knew that some priests were coming to baptize them, some of them did not want to get baptized and they went to hide in the mountain ( i.e. the sierra ), below ground and that's why they became animals, it is said that the principal governor is the ant, others are birds, rabbits, etc.
The ones that were baptized remained in the land, we are those, the ones of today. The Sures still visit us when the temporal arrives..."
Don Pedro Matus's testimony, the Guásimas's community, 1994

ABOUT DEATH ...

Who dies in Lent cannot have funeral rites with party, music, dances and drinking spree, until this period has finished. Only then the soul is able to find her road to return to the old father's (´ITOM ' ACHAI ) house.
With evangelization, the ritual of burying the deceased with his belongings got modified for the use of fitting them with new sandals and placing a cup with water to their side "for the road".

The yaqui heaven is the happy arrival of the spirit home with the Old Father and where all his ancestors and forefathers expect it, for which a feast for part of the living persons is convenient to go with the deceased in its joy. Never the pain for a loved one's separation should be manifested tearfully, because this would do that the spirit lose its bearings and may convert him in an eternal bum, solitaire and aimlessly ( that could be considered like the yaqui hell )
After-death Joy or sacrifice will not be due to then the personal merits while one is alive but as a result of the attitude of the living persons and of the exactitude with which the rites are celebrated.

MUSIC AND DANCE

1.- Principal dances and ritual music:

The Deer's Dance: Called MAASO YIIHUA in yaqui language, it describes life and death of the sacred animal of the yaqui. The dancer tells moments of the life cycle of the deer with a free mimics that represents the attitudes of surprise, alert, atisbo, venteo, etc of the deer in front of the nature that surrounds it and its contact with the creatures it makes contact with, represented for the Pascola's figures ( that can represent a bird, a snake, a flower, a coyote, water, etc.)

The Maaso as much as the Pascola strip of their personality during the dance to adopt the one belonging to the animal, the plant or of the being that they bring into the dance. In general there are 4 pascola and they dance one by one, dancing first the latter in hierarchy, the so-called "el lobito" that represents less estimated animals in the yaqui's valuation: Donkey, dog, fox, etc., afterwards the other two pascola dance and finally the pascola YOOWE ( old man ) or boss of the group.

The dance begins with some "dry" blows of a drum, afterwards a water drum and two scrapers enter, producing a monotonous rhythm. Right away the flute is  heard and the fourth Pascola appears. Meanwhile, the maaso is placing his headdress of dissected deer over the head, when ready he makes it known shaking strongly the rattles that he carries in the hands. In that instant the song in yaqui language initiates and the deer starts to dance with the pascola. When "el Lobito" finishes his dance he leaves and the flute stops sounding. The singing and the scrapers, as well as the drum, follow the deer's rhythm. The song ends up and the drum and scrapers continue alone. The flute starts again and the second Pascola appears, the maaso goes back to shake the rattles and the second song of the series initiates. This rhythm is  repeated equal with the four pascola.
Afterwards the deer leaves and the pascola keep on dancing the "Pascola's dance" These two dances go alternating for the time the party lasts, be it hours or days.

GAME OF THE DEER WITH THE COYOTES: Two or more Pascola intervene simultaneously in this dance, representing coyotes, trying to make jokes or damage the Deer, while it tries to defend itself with agility and elegance.

THE DEER'S DEATH: Where the fight of the man-hunter and the Deer is represented, and the Deer ends up giving over and die. The Pascola represent the hunter and the scrapers and the water drum, with their rhythm, march indicating the deer's heartbeats and his respiration, stopping to sound when the maaso dies.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

 DEER:

Water drum ( Baa wéhai )

Two wooden scrapers ( Hirúkiam )

Chant of one or two of the performers of the scrapers
PASCOLA:

Flute of reed ( Bacacusia )

Drum of double patch ( Cúbahi )

This sonorous complex is complemented with the sound of the cocoons ( Tenéboim ) that the maaso and the pascola carry rolled in their legs, the belt formed by deer's hoofs that the maaso wears in his waist, the one of metallic jingle bells that the pascola carry, the pumpkin rattles take that the maaso carries in the hands and the rattle or Sena, that the pascola uses in his right hand.

CEREMONIAL ATTIRE

DEER: Head of deer dissected, with red-colored tape tangled up between the horns, placed on a white-colored handkerchief that covers the head of the dancer front to back, covering his eyes partially. Naked torso and on the chest a chaquira's necklace with crosses of shell nacre. A scarf with figures of very colored flowers is tied in the waist. On the hip is rolled up a shawl that reaches down to his knees, held by a black or dark blue belt. On top he is wearing a belt-rattle with hoofs of deer. In the ankles the tenaboim are  tangled up, in bare feet. One of his wrists goes tight-fitting with a white color cloth. A rattle or guaje of pumpkin is carried in each hand.

PASCOLA: In the head he is wearing a mask painted of black color, white color and sometimes red adornments, with long beards and short eyebrows, of ixtle or of bristle. Naked torso and in the waist a thick blanket of cotton tangled up on the legs to the knee. Also he uses a scarf like the one belonging to the deer and a belt-rattle with metallic jingle bells. Butterfly's cocoons ( tenaboim ) roll up in the legs and also dances in his bare feet, with a rosary or necklace on the chest and a rattle in the right hand. A lock of hair is picked up on the crown of the head, holding it with a color tape.

MUSICIANS: They do not have an especial attire.

The Pascola's Dance: Executed to the sound of harp and violin. They follow a similar order to the one belonging to the Deer, dancing from the fourth to the first pascola, while the deer's musicians rest. The essentials of this dance is to show the agility of feet and precision in rhythm. The same rhythm is danced by all the pascola.

Dance of the Coyote: Executed by three Dancing Coyote over their warrior arc as if it were a horse, hitting rhythmically the arc with a reed that they carry in the left hand. They walk towards and backwards marking, with the head and the torso, the sign of the cross. The musical instrument is the double-hide drum and the tambulero's voice when singing, along with the sound of the reeds when hitting the arc.
The attire is a coyote's or fox's skin placed over the head and that comes down to the waist. Over the coyote's skin they have sewn eagle feathers 's rows. In the head, the skin is hold with a red-colored cloth and a cross of shell nacre at the height of the forehead. In the left shoulder they carry their quiver with arrows, also made out of skin of coyote or fox. This attire is used over the habitual clothing, as well as the use of huaraches or of shoes.

Dance of the Matachin: It is  danced in the big religious festivities of the year, other than Lent. The used instruments are two violins and two guitars, or else three violins and three guitars.

ATTIRE: White blouse very embroidered with big flowers of sightly colors, a necklace made of big chaquira's beads of different colors, a crown with mirrors and bright-colored paper tapes, a pumpkin rattle in a hand and in the other a palm that is a handful of colored feathers in the shape of palm leaf. The rattle calls the rain and the bunch of feathers is associated to the rays and thunders that often come together with the rain.
Children Matachín's apprentices, or the Virgin's dancers, are named Malinche and are wearing a white dress of long coattail, with blouse and very embroidered skirt, with two colored ribbons crossing their chest and back, aside from the necklace with a lot of colored beads. They wear more bright-colored ribbons in the waist. Also they wear crown, rattle and palm.
The director of the group, than dance to the front, is the Monarch or Monaha.
The dance consists in a series not very varied of short and brief steps, with all the sole of the foot leant in the ground, describing determined choreographic figures.

Processional dance of Lent and Holy Week: It is a procession  accomplished by the Pharisees or chapayeca, with martial rhythm, during Lent and Holy Week. They go accompanied with the music of the flute ( the lament ), the drum ( blows to Cristo's nails ) and the belt of animal hoofs ( gratitude or praise from the sinful man to his Redentor God ) of the Pharisees. Meanwhile the Teachers and Singers go singing songs of liturgical type.

ATTIRE: These chapayeca, that assume the roles of Roman soldiers and Jews to represent Cristo's Passion, are wearing an animal leather mask over the head, a sword in the right hand and a knife in the left. The huge ears and big sharp-pointed nose are the principal characteristic of the Jew's mask ( for that reason they are named Chapayeca: "Long nose" in yaqui language ). The Roman soldiers's mask can come in very different forms: Men or animals, puppets, trendy characters, etc. Each one, in his motions, represent the character or animal that their mask describes. Below the mask, they constantly carry a rosary of wooden beads in their mouth, remembering their obligation of being quiet and to protect themselves from evil, symbolized by the mask.
Their suit can be of two types:

Jewish Pharisee: wearing white pants down to the knee, coat, top hat and black spats. The belt-rattle on the hip, the cocoons in the ankles and the traditional yaqui huaraches or sandals.

Roman soldier: wearing white pants to the knee, belt-rattle, cocoons in the legs and huaraches. He covers with with a checkered wool blanket, mostly red-colored, simulating the Roman harness.
Note: It is important to indicate that all the yaqui dances are executed by the tribe's men. The woman participates like singer in the celebrations of Lent and Holy Week.
Profane music: It is limited to folk songs with accompaniment of one or several instruments, in the style of the Northerner Mexican music.

CARFTSMANSHIP

The Yaqui Craftsmanship is related to the celebration of their Traditional Parties. They elaborate the pieces that compose the clothing and their dancers' accessories: Deer's head and masks; Necklaces; Rosaries of Chapayeca or Pharisee; Belts and tenabaris; Huajes or rattles; Drums and scrapers; Violins and harps. They also elaborate furniture made of wood and hide, such as: Tables and stools, etc. The women make and embroider their traditional dress's garments ( shawls, blouses, skirts ), as well as their ethnos's representative dolls.

HEALTH

The group counts with a Rural Medical Center in Vicam's town, with establishments of the Red Cross in many of their towns and particular doctors.
The Yaqui's ailments do not differ very much from the rest of Sonora's indigenous groups and a strong practice of the traditional medicine exists among them.
The quack doctors maintain a lot of respect inside the population and some of them, through a program of the Mexican Institute of Social Security, have received training to work like midwives, with the assistance of the doctors of the IMSS.
The Yaqui or Yoeme are the indigenous group with bigger social cohesion of Sonora and very possibly of the national territory.

Compilation and investigation: Ma. Inmaculada Puente Andrés

Bibliography:
" Progreso y Libertad. Los yaquis en la víspera de la repatriación " by Raquel Padilla Ramos, Edition of the Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán

"La música en la vida de los yaquis" by Leticia Varela, Sonoran State Government, 1986

" El noroeste de México: sus culturas étnicas ", Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 1991

"Tres procesos de lucha por la sobrevivencia de la tribu yaqui" Testimonies. Colección Etnias. PACMYC 1994. Dirección de Culturas Populares de Sonora.

"Sonora, de la prehistoria a el siglo XX" by José Rómulo Gastélum. Hermosillo, Sonora 1999